Solar: Jean Luc Perrier, solar hydrogen production

[chatelot16]

we agree ! there is no thermolysis!

so there is more than just the classic, and with the prices of the current photovoltaic, it is the best solution to supply an electrolyser

and why photovoltaic partner and electrolyser? anyone can mount photovoltaics right away without breaking the head with hydrogen

others can make a plant of electrolysis and storage of hydrogen big enough to be profitable ... because too small the neccessary material will never be profitable: all the equipment neccessaire with the security has a fixed price indepandant of the dimension: it kills small projects

but is it necessary to run car with hydrogen while other continues to burn oil for heating: it would not be easier to reserve the oil for vehicles and heat by electricity and heat pump. .. the co-op of the heat pump reducing the energy to store

even if the electricity and made by a generator has hydrogenated, the heat pump cop makes more money than the efficiency of the engine has lost, and we have more heat than by burning the hydrogen

therefore, it is useless to transport hydrogen: as much to leave it in electricity storage factories

of course, a hydrogen storage plant must be associated with a methanizer, and gasification of biomass (gasifier), the same engine can use all types of gas depending on availability and need

hydrogen can also be used by fuel cell but it is too expensive, peak power too limited power vacuum lost to maintain temperature: actual average efficiency disappointing

The heat engines are cheap, easy to install huge power

[Christophe]

It becomes quite painful to always question some of my words ... good reading friends ...

12.2 HYDROGEN (The Clean Oil of Tomorrow) (1)

Hydrogen is in gaseous form at room temperature, or liquid below -253 ° C (LH2);
Its energy value at constant pressure: 34 000 Kcal against 10 000 Kcal for a petroleum product (petrol, fuel oil) gives it for example in aeronautics a considerable weight gain but a larger volume.

Hydrogen is not toxic, it is one of the most common single bodies in nature.
The very lightness of hydrogen (15 times lighter than air: density 0,0695 compared to air) causes a rapid evacuation of possible leaks, so less risk; we will do a security analysis in detail later.

Hydrogen has a thermal conductivity seven times greater than air, which is why it is used for cooling large generators; PH2 is diamagnetic (repulsion by a magnet), of a viscosity half less than the air and ignites spontaneously from 585 ° C
(540 ° C for methane and only 228 at 471 ° C for gasoline).

Unlike many gases, the hydrogen heats up if its relaxation is very fast.

H2 is sold commercially (Air-Liquide Company, French Carboxyde), in pressurized cylinders at 196 bars in the gaseous state in three categories: H2 type R with a rate> 99,95%; H2 type U with a rate> 99,995%; H2 type N55 with a rate> 99,9995% and industrial hydrogen.

The first two categories are also available with 270 m3 frames or 2 000 m3 semi-trailers at 196 bars. Liquid hydrogen (LH2) is available in containers of 5, 10 100 liters with nitrogen guard without pressure, or in tanks of 800 liters at 2,9 or 10 bars or by semi-trailers of 10 000 liters at 0,85 bar.

(1) Catalytic "reforming" of a hydrocarbon; current solution that gives 20 millions of tons of hydrogen a year in the world, but it is expensive and irrelevant for the future because it takes oil initially ...

(2) By biosynthesis: The yields are low but studies are in progress.

(3) By electrolysis of water with electro-solar stations.

a) Electrolysis through membranes through which the ions are exchanged in acid half-place.

b) Low temperature electrolysis in an alkaline medium.

There are currently electrolysers, used in the industry that are capable of producing 750 m3 hydrogen per hour: 6 600 amperes intensity, 540 volts voltage.

Fig. 2. Pressure electrolysis system for 5 100 m3 N / h hydrogen. (Lurgui document).



Fig. 3. Arrangement of electrolysis cells under pressure. (Lurgui document).



The energy required is from 4,3 to 4,7 kWh per M product which corresponds to a conversion efficiency of 50%.

From 1948 the firm Lurgi (1) managed to build industrial electrolysers capable of producing hydrogen at the pressure of 33 bars which often dispenses with a subsequent compression as is necessary in a usual electrolysis.

As for the Americans (General Electric Company (2), they plan to build 1985 MW module electrolysers for 5 MW projects and more in 100 in order to produce hydrogen using nuclear power stations or large solar stations. (Even if these 2 channels seem opposable by some, the same goal is sought.)

CHEM System Inc., 747 Third Avenue New York, is now offering an electrolysis plant with a power of 506 MW.

EDF is planning 444 MW electrolysers to use the "off-peak" electric current from nuclear power plants that can not be shut down daily.

c) Electrolysis of water vapor at 850 ° C, with solid electrolyte, the yield is from 60 to 80% and could reach 90% according to the General Electric Company (USA) and the Batelle Institute in Geneva (Switzerland ).

We got 90% by recycling the electrolysis heats to our solar station.

In such a process, a solar station is able to produce water vapor to drive a turbogenerator producing the electricity required for electrolysis and the temperature of 850 ° C through a concentrator.

d) Pyrocatalysis of water: this is the most direct method of decomposition of water at medium temperature.

(4) - By gasification of coal

This process may not be based in the very long term following the exhaustion of coal, but it is capable of producing hydrogen and methanol (CH3OH) whose calorific value is 5 340 Kcal per kg.

(5) - By direct cracking of water (2 500 ° C thermolysis)

A solar reactor is capable of directly producing hydrogen, but the holding of the materials at such a temperature and the hydrogen-oxygen separation pose problems.

(6) - By thermochemical decomposition

More than 2 000 cycles have been identified; we have already mentioned the one that used iron oxide as a catalyst.

Active research is carried out in the center of Euratom in Ispra (Italy)

Mrs. Hardy, Messrs De Beni, and Marchetti managed to break down the water at 750 ° C by the following cycle:

Ca Br2 + 2 H20 - Ca (OH) 2 + 2 HBr at 730 ° C Hg + 2 HBr - Hg Br2 + H2 / at 250 ° C Hg Br2 + Ca (OH) - Ca Br2 + HgO + H20 at 200 ° C HgO - Hg + 1 / 2 02 /

(55% yield)

Likewise at the University of Aachen, at the nuclear center of Julisch in Germany, or at Gaz de France with the potassium cycle:

K2 02 + H20 - 2 KOH + 1 / 2 02 / at 150 ° C 2 KOH + 2 K - 2 K20 + H2 / at 700 ° C 2 K20 - K202 + 2 K at 1000 ° C

In the United States: General Electric, Atomics International, Gulf General Atomics, Institute of Gas Technology and Allison Division of General Motors Company with the formula:

Cl2 + H20 - 2HC1 + 1 / 2 02 to 700 - 800 ° C 2 HC1 + 2 VC12 - 2 VC13 + H2 to 100 ° C

4 VCb - 2 VC12 + 2 VC1 "at 700 ° C

2VCi "- 2VC13 + Cl2 to 100 ° C

Nowadays, we obtain even better than these three formulas by associating electrolysis with thermochemistry. This is yet another aspect which shows that a solar station must be polyvalent and a true "solar electrochemical" complex.

Mr. A. Vialaron, director of the "PIRDES" program, at CNRS in Toulouse, considers that the hybrid cycles (thermo and electrochemical) of decomposition of water are of interest and tells us that Westinghouse (USA) and EU-RATOM (Europe ) are working on a cycle of decomposition of water by electrolysis, associated with an oxidation-reduction cycle.

In most of these processes lies the intention to manufacture hydrogen from the heat of a nuclear reactor without going through electricity. A project by GDF and CEA concerns the production of 48 tons of hydrogen per hour thanks to a nuclear power plant of 3 000 MW, coupled to a potassium cycle. But there is a serious problem with the handling of materials and the safety ...

On the other hand, a solar reactor can work at 1 000 ° C, without being dependent on the many exchangers necessary to ensure safety if the thermal source is nuclear, especially since it is used toxic, corrosive or explosive products such as the potassium.

One of the goals of the Atlanta Solar Station (USA) is to experiment with methods of decomposing water into hydrogen and oxygen.

On the other hand, in thermochemical reactions, the bodies must be recycled or used in other applications.

(7) Artificial photosynthesis.

Although the solution is simple as we have seen in chapter 7, the yields are quite low in the infra-red spectrum.

At CEA Saclay, MM. Guillemot and Bourrasse have achieved good results with 90% conversion of ultraviolet to hydrogen, but ultraviolet light is in low proportion in solar radiation. It is not excluded that radioactive radiation of shorter wavelength than ultraviolet can produce hydrogen profitably.

At the California Institute of Chemical Technology in Los Angeles, a rhodium-based chemical that directly transforms solar radiation into hydrogen, research is continuing to find a metal other than rhodium because it is very expensive. Group VIII (cobalt, nickel, platinum).

(8) Production of hydrogen by radiolysis with a laser.

The decomposition of water is carried out in a very complex apparatus at a temperature between 260 ° C and 285 ° C at a pressure of 65 at 70 bars and with a mean neutron flux of 2,5 x 10'2, speed greater than 1 MeV / cm2 dry, the power supply of the laser is approximately 100 MW.

This solution seems economical but too long to describe (pages 177 to 201, IAHE, volume 3, No. 2, 1978, IRT Corporation).

(9) Production of H2, by cracking ammonia.

It is possible to separate this gas into hydrogen and nitrogen but in general it is the reverse operation that is carried out for the manufacture of nitrogen fertilizers (37 million cubic meters of H2 in America in 1973).

(10) Gas separation from ovens.

After washing with liquid nitrogen these gases contain 80 90% H2, this method is usual.

Value of the theoretical maximum production

Whatever the process of obtaining hydrogen from water and in the hypothesis where the installation would be placed in the most favorable conditions, as for example in the Northern Desert of Chile where one finds 1 mm of rain and 364 days of sunshine a year, we would have a production of 800 m3 of hydrogen per m2 per year either for a square of 10 km of side: 80 billion of m3 or 30 million of PET per year.

As it is unfortunately impossible to obtain a yield equal to 1, but logically 0,5, or even 0,2, we can divide by 2 or by 5 the previous quantities.

Fig. 4.- Iron-titanium alloy hydride is a chemical compound containing hydrogen: A simple way to fill the tank of a vehicle. (Document Billings Energy Corporation USA)

This kind of "sponge" is composed of cobalt, nickel and a rare earth compound: Lanthanum, Neodyne.

1 dm3 titanium hydride stores 1 690 liters of H2. A great deal of research is now under way and is starting to succeed: at Batelle in Geneva, at Brookhaven National Laboratory (US A) with a titanium - iron - hydrogen mixture, at Philips in Holland: lanthanum - iron - hydrogen; in these two cases the capacity is 180 cm3 hydrogen at the pressure of 2 bars, per gram of alloy.

In Japan: MATSUSHITA Industrial Research Institute recently developed an alloy based on titanium, zirconium, chromium and manganese obtained by electric arc furnace under argon; the storage capacity is 200 cm3 from H2 to 30 bars per gram of alloy whose price is 3 yens / gram.

There are more than 20 patents on this issue.

Hydride storage is no more of a problem than fuel or gasoline in the tank of a vehicle.

The arrangement is totally different so that the heat of the engine can heat the hydride.

The investment price of the hydride varies between 20 F and 130 F per kilogram, for a weight / mass ratio H2 ranging from 3,5 (the Mg2 Ni Hj4) to 12,7 (the LiH).
Hydride is a kind of second reservoir whose price does not matter since it is like a deposit.

In 1979, 100 kg of LiH equals 61 liters of gasoline. (A very important study on the subject: 411 to 442 pages by J. Donnely, WC Greayer, J. Nichols, from Oserospace Corporation California, WJD Escher and E. Ecklund respectively from Escher Technology A. St Johns, Michigan , and the US Department of Energy, Washington.4 Volume5 - 1979 of the IAHE.

Ref: French Institute of Petroleum (IFP)

1 and 4 Av. Wood Préau 95502 Rueil-Malmaison.



Fig. 4 bis. - "Pratt and Whitney" fuel cell type PC1I. Power 12,5 k W, coupled as an experiment to the Hydro-Québec grid.



USES OF HYDROGEN

1) Space heating: Thanks to a gas boiler which will supplement what the solar energy could not have provided on the place of the use (additional heating of solar houses).

The city gas network in Paris contains 50% of H2.

Many industrialists who have modified their boiler burners to use natural gas will be able to easily adapt to the H2, which will increase the longevity of the equipment.

2) Electricity

Thanks to a fuel cell (we must not forget that hydrogen is a metal that will "gnaw" in the same way as the zinc of a dry cell, but with the difference that it is easy to renew it by introducing more gas), electricity can be produced with a yield of 40 at 80%.
According to Pratt and Whitney in Hartford (USA) which is one of the best placed of the world manufacturers, and in agreement with the American program "Target" financed by about thirty gas companies. (Photo 4 bis).

It was in 1802 that Davy, and Grove in 1839, found the reversibility of the electrolysis of water; today the mass power of fuel cells is 500 watts per kg against 5,4 W / kg in 1965.

With the hydrazine batteries manufactured by Alsthom, the mass power exceeds 1 000 watts per kg.

However, the mass power of an automobile engine is on average 350 watts per kg, which allows the comparison taking into account the weight of the electric motor and that of the hydride reservoir.

Wherever we need electricity, the fuel cell, whose power can reach several megawatts, can be of great service: emergency power station in companies that use computers, generator without heat or noise, which is an obvious interest for the military.

The fuel cell seems difficult to generalize because of the use of a rare metal, platinum. One can hardly think of Professor Justi's method, which uses nickel, but pressurized gases are needed. The generator is no longer the responsibility of individual installations.

Despite a fairly limited market so far, the price of fuel cells varies from 250 to 1000 F per kilowatt installed which is competitive with small spark generator sets.

3) Metallurgy

Just as coal is a reducer of metal oxides, so is hydrogen, it is already used in Mexico at ARMCO, and planned in Japan.

4) Chemistry:

For the synthesis of ammonia whose utility is to manufacture fertilizers, for the manufacture of methanol (in combination with carbon and oxygen, since its formula is CH3 OH), and which is an excellent fuel for a vehicle current.
Two liters of methanol equals one liter of gasoline.

5) Power supply.

Hydrogen can be used as protein in "hydrogen-nomon" yeasts to feed the animals.

H2 is used for the hydrogenation of oils, the manufacture of margarine.
The demand was 10 millions of m3 in 1973 and will be 20 million in 1980, for this sector, in the USA.

6) Glass, steel, electronics, oil and other industries.

The combustion temperature of the H2 and its propagation velocity (lower than that of acetylene) are used to work some technical glasses, such as the continuous manufacture of ice under a nitrogen atmosphere H2 (in Bous-sois). ).

With the H2 steel can be cut underwater, cast iron, stainless steel.
Proceed with the welding of chromium, manganese and titanium alloys, without forgetting the so-called "atomic hydrogen" welding (which is not radioactive).

In electronics, let us mention the treatment of junction diodes under a nitrogen-hydrogen atmosphere.

To eliminate sulfur from petroleum products refineries use the H2 (115 millions of m3 in 1980 in the USA).

In the manufacture of rubber, the cooling of large generators, inflating observation balloons (the CNRS, CEA, CNET, CNES are considering the return of helium-filled airships to transport loads up to 500 tons.
The Nazare engineer is the author of a patent on this subject), in bubble chambers ex: "Mirabelle" the largest in the world, delivered by the CEA to the USSR, we use without problem hydrogen.

7) Fuel for vehicle.

- In the form of hydride or powder: 100 kg of hydrides equivalent to 61 liters of gasoline. For a vehicle of total weight: 1 080 kg, the range is 350 km.

- Compressed form in steel tanks: autonomy 200 km, in the manner of vehicles that run on gas in the southwest in particular
(Fig. 5 and 6)

The city of St Etienne decided in July 1979, to gradually equip its gas 170 service vehicles that consume 160 000 liters of super per year.
The city of Nantes makes the same decision in October, many others quickly follow this idea.

The gas engine is not only reserved for locomotion since the city of Rennes uses since 1977 sewage gas to supply the engines that produce the electricity needed for the treatment plant.
The saving thus achieved is 450 tons of fuel per year.
The generalization of the process should in 1985 save 20 000 toe per year in France.

All these adaptations to gas show how much they are preparing for the hydrogen era.

- In liquid form to make regular trips, such as urban transport, SNCF etc. otherwise the H2 would evaporate as a result of warming during extended parking.

Fig. 5.- The equipment of a vehicle with natural gas is already practiced in France (50 000 U.) and in many countries of Europe: Holland, Italy (260 000 11).
(Document Sic "Air Liquide).





Fig. 6.- Liquefied Natural Gas Distribution Station Aux Quatre Pavillons (North exit of Bordeaux).
(Photo J.-L. Perrier).



7.1). Mercedes-Daimler-Benz vehicles (Fig. 7, 8, 9).

Very important studies have led to the realization of several vehicles fueled with gasoline and hydrogen from hybrid tanks containing hydride such as 10 Figure.

With 200 kg hydride Mg H2 storing 16 kg H2 is the equivalent of 77 l gasoline, and 20 l gasoline, it was possible to travel 600 km with a vehicle of

2 400 kg.
This is satisfactory compared to the consumption of similar machines, such as that of the J7 van (up to 17 l 100 km).

Fig. 7.- Mini hydrogen bus from hydrides.
(Document kindly communicated by Dr Buchner and Saüfferer)



We would like to thank Dr. Buchner and Dr. Sàufferer, Director of the Hydrogen Program at Mercedes, members of the IAHE, for the many documents graciously presented. (An article from 22 pages under the title: Hydrogen Hydrogen Energy Concept, was published in 3 volume 4 - 1978 IAHE).

From these documents (53 pages, 21 photos) we are happy to extract also figure 11 which shows how the house "all hydrogen - auto fuel" can perfectly exist.

1. Hydride storage tank at high temperature, heated by the exhaust gas (auxiliary heating)
2. Hydride tank at low temperature, heated by exhaust gases (condensation)
3. Low temperature hydride tank with liquid heat exchanger (air conditioning).
Fig. 8.- Disposition of 3 hydride reservoirs at different temperatures.
The engine heat heats the hydride that releases the H2.
(Document kindly communicated by Dr Buchner and Saüfferer)

Fig. 9.- Hydrogen vehicle powered by a hybrid hydride-gasoline tank.
(Document kindly communicated by Dr. Buchner and Saüfferer, Mercedes)

Fig. 11.- Hydrogen storage in a hydride for domestic energy and for that of the vehicle.
Document kindly communicated by Dr. Buchner and Saüfferer, Mercedes.)

Fig. 10.- Hydride tank of the car described fig. 9.
(Document kindly communicated by Dr. Buchner and Saüfferer, Mercedes).



7.2). The vehicle Billing Corporation (Fig. 12).

Several mini-buses of 21 passengers are in experimental service in the city of Provo.
The Dodge engine with 7 200 cm3 engine is powered with H2 from a Ti Fe hydride tank and water injection.

A profitability study on 100 mini-bus running 480 km per day indicates that as early as the 1e year 5 000 dollars are saved; for a period of 5 years transport to the H2 costs 2,27 times less than with gasoline (and taking into account adaptation work).



Fig. 12.- US vehicle with hydrogen and water (7 200 cm3). (Document Billings Energy Corporation USA).

Billings study shows that the difference between the increase in gasoline prices and the decrease in H2 (0,9 in 74) will be 1,69 in 1985 which proves that the announced profitability will be superior to 2,27 in the future 20 years.
Then it will not even matter to compare prices, there will be shortage of gasoline but not for the H2 (l).

Comparison of mechanical efficiencies in an engine:
Hydrogen 33%
Methanol 28%
25% Essence
Electricity 80% (for a vehicle)

(1) In January 1980, Billings markets Chrysler Omni (the US equivalent of the Talbot Horizon) equipped with a gasoline or hydrogen fueling device by simply switching on a button on the dashboard.

The hydrogen generator is sold with the car and it plugs into the 220 V, like an electric vehicle but the performance of lightness, reliability, autonomy (170 km) and speed (130 km / h) give the vehicle to the H2 a technological advance.
Billings Energy Corp. will soon be offering adaptation kits on the market.



But for the moment the storage efficiency is hardly favorable to electricity.

Hydrogen 95% Methanol 95% Electricity 49% (rechargeable).

Hydride 90% Essence 95%

7.3). JL Perrier vehicle (l) (Fig. 13, 14)

Fig. 13.- The hydrogen vehicle by J.-L. Perrier in front of the solar concentrator producing hydrogen.

(Photo J.-L. Perrier and J.-M. Boullet).



(1) Presented to the press the 19 January 1979. ref. : The New Republic, West France, the 20, 21 January, The 20 Western Mail, 21 and 23 January, The 28 January Dawn, The 3 April Solar Magazine, The 10 May Ocean Press, Science and Life of June 79, The Express of the 4 August, South-West: (one-week series of end of December 79) etc ...
3,5 TV shows mn: 16 March FR3, and 20 June A2. A communication on this vehicle was made at the International Congress at the University of Miami (Florida USA) 16, 17 April 1979 at the IAHE headquarters, which resulted in an article in the International Review for Hydrogen, 444 pages, 445, 4 volume number 4, 1979.

Presented at the Museum of Poitiers with Demonstration Place de l'Hotel de Ville, the 23 January 1980 thanks to the kindness of Mr. Curator of the Museum, Mr. De Litardière, Professors Bauer and Brochet, many other personalities and the help from the Departmental Director of Youth Sports and Recreation Vienna.

Presented at the Paris Fair 26 April at 3 May 1980 with the help of Mr. Fougeron, Action Committee for the Sun, 7, Laos street, 75015 Paris, and in the Auto-journal, n 1117 17 May 1980.

Fig. 14.- Hydrogen supply circuits are indicated by circles. H2 engine

J.-L. Perrier.



(Photo J.-L. Perrier and J.-M. Boullet).

The intention of the author was to prove that solar energy was not just a mode of heating but a way to turn water into hydrogen and use it directly as fuel, or to make methane, methanol which are also fuels.

This vehicle is one of the first to operate with pure hydrogen, in France in 1979.

The adaptation comprises different circuits at different pressures to bring the H2 into the carburetor venturi by 3 tubes.

During tests and in order to dispel the bad reputation of the water engine which Perrier, despite its name, was never the author, used hydrogen gas, bought at the Air Liquide Company which awarded a contract. In this way, the nature of the gases employed by JLP, a member of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE), could not be questioned.

Six months later, JL Perrier manufactures the H2 himself at his solar power station using a thermodynamic cycle, thus achieving a world first which is described in the 4e part of this book.

7.4). Liquid hydrogen vehicle (Fig. 15)

The Datsun B 210 equipped in 4 month with liquid H2 has a 230 tank of liters at the pressure of 5 bars which is able to withstand 10 g decelerations in case of collision.

This vehicle has a range of 650 km, its speed is between 80 and 88 km / h. The endurance test on 2 781 km showed the perfect operation of the engine that had been modified (additional H2 injection camshaft).

The conclusion of the Japanese researchers Furuhama, Hiruma and Enomoto, after a report of 21 pages (volume 3-1 1978 IAFIE) is that the transport of the H2 poses no significant problem of safety and operation and that the pollution is very, very low.

Fig. 16.- Vehicle with liquid hydrogen (presented 9-3-1979).
(Document kindly provided by Dr. Y. Enomoto, Tokyo)

Researchers at Misashi IT believe that feeding vehicles with liquid hydrogen cassettes is a good solution for the future.

The 9 March the Musashi IT presents to the press a car 550 Suzuki (16) whose speed can reach 120 km / h, always at the H2.
This is what we learned from an article in the 10.3.79 Herald Tribune kindly communicated by the American journalist Mark Antman.

In his statement to the press, Mr. Enomoto expresses his regret at not being able to test this vehicle on the roads of Japan. (Note that the test with the Datsun B 210 was conducted in the US between Bellingham, Los Angeles, Santa Cruz and Santa Bar-Bara).

In addition to the many photos sent by our colleague from the IAHE with the authorization of diffusion, which we thank him, Dr. Y. Enomoto was kind enough to inform us of the communication of 7 pages proposed at the XVth International Congress of the cold at Venice (23-29 SEPTEMBER 1979) under the title "liquid-propelled two-stroke liquid vehicle with injection and spark ignition.

This solution has many advantages, including:

- Low compression work thanks to the use of the liquid hydrogen pump.

- the overheated parts of the engine can be cooled by the H2 at low temperature.

- The pressure energy of the injected H2 and its vaporization (42% in addition to the volume of the initial mixture) can be converted into useful power.

Although the longevity of the injectors and the liquid H2 pump remains to be proven, Japanese researchers expect the two-stroke injection engine to be the best for hydrogen cars.

7.5). The hydrogen diesel engine

HS Homan researchers from Princeton University, WJ Me Lean from Cornell University in Ithaca and RK Reynolds from Jet Propulsion in Pasadena, USA, experimented with a Caterpillar D 399 diesel engine by fitting injectors to the hydrogen gas. The compression ratio: 29, is sufficient to cause self-ignition (927 ° C).
The diesel engine is widely used in industrial vehicles, the adaptation to the H2 is therefore of even greater importance.

(References: 11 pages in English volume 4 No. 4 - 1979 IAHE of which these researchers are also members).

Farms can use the methane produced by manure and vegetable waste by fermentation but also hydrogen.

7.7). Various observations on H2 engines.

The conversion of an ordinary engine to hydrogen is quite delicate, realizable proof is, but at the cost of significant effort as in any prototype.
The detailed description of all the devices would require several thousand pages (the reader will be able to get the many books from the IAHE which are distributed by Pergamon Press (Oxford, New York, Frankfort).) Some cost up to 600 dollars or about 3 000 F.

In summary, the H2 engine is 30% more powerful than the original gasoline, its idle speed is very low if desired because of the excellent gas-air mixture. At startup there is no "washing" of cylinders as is the case with the choke, responsible for excess fuel.
The lubrication will be better but it will choose a more fluid oil, 10 SAE less, because it tends to thicken under the action of the H2.
The engine will have a longer life, as in the case of LNG or LPG liquefied natural gas engines with butane-propane.

Fig. 17.- Mr. Georges Romney, former CEO of Michigan Motors and Michigan Governor, and Mr. Roger llillings on a hydrogen powered Jacobsen tractor.
(IAHE document)

The H2 engine is not pollutant, it does not release carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide and only 40 times less nitrous oxide (laughing gas).
The main discharge in the exhaust is water vapor; the water initially used during its decomposition in the electrolyser for example.
That the reader is reassured, there is no risk of flooding on the roads, what comes out of the exhaust pipe has the same appearance as with gasoline.
It is really heartbreaking to hear or read that the hydrogen engine will wet the roads, it will require reinforced windshield wipers, why not also propellers to vehicles, as on boats?

The calculation indicates that a car 8 9 ch tax rejects 0,2 liter of water per km or about 1 drop of water per meter traveled, in the form of steam. The gasoline engine, jet engines (white streaks) also reject water vapor.

Ford automaker has signed with 1972, an exclusive worldwide contract, for a hydrogen Stirling engine.

Régie Renault is continuing tests on an 1 300 cm3 engine on the H2.

In 1945 a Saurer 1918 truck worked at the H2 in the Saumur region thanks to the talents of MM. Hubault and Dubled.

Christian Reithmann built a H1858 engine in Monaco in 2, which he then transformed into lighting gas.

The adaptation of the piston engine is of great importance so as not to reform the production lines or existing vehicles.
But in the relatively near future it is possible that the fuel cell (overall efficiency 50%) can power electric motors placed in the hubs of the wheels.
During braking, the motors become generators of electric current, the battery then works in electrolyser from where filling of the tank.

From 1985, high performance batteries, and especially to 1990 lithium / aluminum / iron sulphide batteries (175 W / kg instead of 30 with the current batteries for the same price and a yield of 90%) will make a big revolution in the field of the automobile: vehicle lighter, silent, non-polluting, of a total yield of transmission: 64%.

For the same number of vehicles in circulation we will spend almost 3 less fuel.

The conclusion of the 32 pages of the very interesting report (4 Vol # 5 - 1979) of MJ Donnelly and his colleagues, already mentioned about hydrides, is that in the period 85 to the year 2000, a car 4 places, traveling to the H2 will be lighter, less expensive, safety should be considered especially when parking where a good ventilation of garages and underground parking; the biggest difficulty is the rapid implementation of a hydride distribution network and H2 refueling points, we find exactly the same problem now with LNG or LPG.

In the short term, the electric car is too heavy, cumbersome, of low autonomy and expensive, however after year 2000 the difference will be less important.

It appears that we must produce H2, which is to say the importance of solar energy in its production in large quantities.
This concept is developed, for example, in the review of the information service of the Prime Minister (June 1979) which indicates in bibliography the first edition of the book by JL Perrier; respectfully thanked.

While the Americans anticipate a production of 2 189 million m3 from H2 in 2000, the Commission of the European Communities had proposed a budget of 13 million EUA or about 16 million for a research program on hydrogen for the period 1975-1980 (Ref G. Imarisio, 371 to 375 vol 4 / 5 1979 IAHE).



Fig. 20.- 2,7 234 Flying Liquid Hydrogen Airplane Project capable of carrying 7 passengers on 780 XNUMX km

(Document kindly provided by Dr. GD Brewer, Lockheed USA)



Note in Figure 19 that the H2 tanks are far from the reactors, hence less risky than with the jet A which is normally found in the wings, close to the flame of the nozzles.

Another project concerns a supersonic plane flying at mach 2,7 (figure 20), it would be able to carry 234 passengers on 7 780 km. The weight of this plane taking off, 179 tons, instead of 345 t with the jet A.

This important weight difference (166 t) comes from what would be 150 t jet A (while with the H2 it takes 38,7 t), but also that the structure of the aircraft is lighter more at a difference of 111 t of fuel.

Doc. NASA kindly communicated. by Dr. RF KORYCINSKY of NASA N

Fig. 21.- Equipment at San Francisco Airport (USA) to distribute 1 000 t liquid hydrogen, equivalent to current 3 0001 jet A.

(Document PF Korycinski, Nasa).



The bearing surface of the wings passes 1031 m! at 739 m2 (the more heavy a plane is, the more wings, landing gear, etc ...) The weight generates the weight and requires more fuel.

Hydrogen is a multiplier of lightness:

1 m3 of H2 weighs 70,8 kg, 1 m3 of jet A = 877 kg.
If the volume occupied by the H2 is 4 times greater than the jet A, it is not very troublesome, it extends a little the fuselage (1 / 10 of its length) which allows to lodge there H2 away from it



Fig. 22.- Standardized connections exist for filling liquid hydrogen as well as
special vehicles.

(Document PF Koryanski, Nasa)

Reactors, resulting in better safety compared to jet A which is in the wings. What counts especially in an airplane is not so much the volume, but especially the weight. As the mass of the aircraft is smaller, and the thrust of the engines is greater, the take-off distance is reduced from 3 000 m to 1 500 m.
As for the price of a plane at the LH2, it is the same for a flying machine at mach 0,85 (14 figure) but becomes 1,35 times less for the project flying at mach 2,7 (45,5 million against 61,5 with the jet AT).

The experts at Lockheed and NASA believe that the LH2 aircraft offers the same security as the others, it will be more manageable due to its light weight, it will pollute very little and save energy.

Airport equipment is not fictional, as we can see: (Fig. 21-22), according to a report by 20, pages of engineer PF Korycinski, Nasa, in PIAHE Vol. 3 - n ° 2 - 1978.

All the research made by NASA for the conquest of space, thanks to the LH2, is directly and quickly exploitable for the military and civil aviation. Standard fittings and filling modes exist.

As for the electrical energy required for electrolysis, it is 332 MW in San Francisco and 350 MW at the Chicago Airport.
LH2 will also be produced by early coal gasification.

ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR HYDROGEN:

Until now, hydrogen has come from an energy or an expensive fuel that it was better to spend on something else (fuel, electricity) ...

The exhaustion of energy sources and even raw materials encourages us to turn to hydrogen, which is also a non-polluting fuel during its production by taking the usual precautions.

As for the use, at the moment of combustion there is a slight amount of nitrogen oxide (less dangerous than carbon dioxide given the proportions), practically not if the fuel cell is used, and always restitution of the water initially invested without imbalance of the quantity of oxygen which the nature implies.

Even if the oxygen produced during the decomposition of water is used in chemistry, the depletion will be much lower than with the massive combustion of petroleum products. The nuclear industry may have its drawbacks but we can not blame it for consuming oxygen from the air.

Hydrogen is an inexhaustible energy carrier because it can be recycled very quickly:

1 m3 of water contains 888 l of oxygen, 111 of hydrogen and 1 of various bodies, ie the energy equivalent of 470 liters of gasoline provided however to spend an even greater energy at moment of electrolysis or thermochemical cracking to separate hydrogen from oxygen. (To lift a stone you have to spend mechanical energy, if you let it go, that energy will be resituated).

1 km3 of water contains in hydrogen the equivalent of 470 millions of m3 of gasoline (it would be more logical to say that this cubic kilometer of water results from the combustion of 111 millions of tons of hydrogen (= 470 of essence) and that it is a degraded energy state and not potential, exactly as when the stone is down.

The world oil consumption in 1980 (3 billion tons) corresponds to the average flow of the Seine (520 m3 / s), during 83 days ... it will be said that the oil flowed in the year 1980.

The production of hydrogen as a total oil replacement would require the use of the Rhône flow (1720 m3 / s) for 33 days to supply the world and 1,3 j. for France.

Ultimately, the energy vector of the future in the long term will develop from water and solar radiation, many applications are possible.

The forms can be the most diverse: hot water, steam, methane, methanol, hot oil with a network of urban distribution, electricity ...

SECURITY

As rightly pointed out by the engineer .LA. Grégoire in his book "living without oil" Ed Flammarion, the public tends to make about hydrogen a complex of Hindenburg following the fire that destroyed the airship of the name, in New York, shortly before the last world war. Why not also talk about the complex of the Raynouard street after the terrible gas explosion in 1978 in Paris.

Since that time the technology has evolved, we know how to use this gas perfectly in the industry as we have seen previously, in good conditions of safety.

Whether acetylene: C2 H2 - EDF-GDF want to make it from calcium carbide and water whose heating value in the gaseous state is 4 times greater than PH2, butane, propane, methane, gasoline, methanol, alcohol, all these products are explosive, that's why we use them.

A fuel without energy is not dangerous but has little interest, why not refuel with sand? ...
It's economical and not dangerous ...

There will certainly be fires and explosions because of hydrogen, but no more than with current liquid or gaseous fuels (burning vehicles, oil tankers, planes, exploding gas pipes, etc.)

On several occasions we have examined the safety of H2, in particular by mentioning that its autoignition temperature is greater (585 ° C) than that of gasoline (228 to 47I ° C) but we can add that :

- Hydrogen burns in the air, giving a lower temperature (2045 ° C) than gasoline (2197 ° C).

- The diffusion of H2 leaks in the air is faster (2 cm / second) than with gasoline (0,17 cm / sec), hence the risk of stagnation of the product, hence fewer possible explosions.

- The explosion limit is wider with H2 (4 than 75%) than with gasoline (1 7,6%) which is not necessarily an advantage in favor of gasoline because the explosion will be done faster with.

Indeed, it seems more accurate to speak of the lower limit because of the diffusion which makes the concentration increase, rather than the opposite phenomenon, which is more rare.

- If the minimum energy to ignite the H2 in the air (spark for example) is 0,02 mJ against 0,24 for gasoline, hence actually a greater risk, the majority of heat sources gives a higher energy to these two values, which ultimately creates the same risk, except perhaps with static electricity, which is easy to eliminate. If there is a leak in the presence of spark it will exploit anyway but not necessarily the same damage as we will see later.

- In the case of combustion, the H2 radiates 17 at 25% of its energy instead of 30 at 42% for gasoline and 23 at 33% for methane, resulting in a lower fire spread for the H2, whose flame is slightly less hot in addition.

- If there is explosion, the damage produced by the H2 will be less important:

a) In the liquid state: 1 cm3 of LH2 is equivalent to 1,71 gr of TNT (The well-known explosive) whereas 1 cm3 of methane (natural gas) is equivalent to 4,56 gr of TNT and 1 cm3 of gasoline to 7,04 TNT gr

b) In the gaseous state: 1 m3 of H2 is equivalent to 2,02 kg of TNT, 1 m3 of methane to 7,03 kg of TNT and 1 m3 of petrol vapor to 44,22 kg TNT hence the presence of lead in the essence to avoid an explosion too brutal.

From this last table it appears that the explosion of methane is 3,48 times more damage than the H2 and that the gasoline vapors make 22 times more.

By using serious technology, the H2 is the fuel of the future, directly or to manufacture synthetic fuels, it is inexhaustible and is not carcinogenic like petroleum products.

A REMARKABLE PROPHECY?

The scientific novelist from Nantes, Jule Verne, had been very precise about underwater travel, in the air and even towards the moon.

In his novel "The Mysterious Island" written in 1870, we can read in summary:

"The water is decomposable into its primitive elements by electricity ... I think that water will one day be used as fuel, that the oxygen and the hydrogen which constitute it used together or separately, will be able to provide a source inexhaustible heat and light and an intensity of which the coal is not capable ...
I think that when the coal mines are exhausted, we will have to use water, water will be the fuel of the future ... ".

Today, the main fuel for space exploration is the oxygen / hydrogen mixture, which is why NASA produces so much.

An international association: "International Association for Hydrogen Energy (1) (IAHE) group of researchers of 26 countries, organizes congresses, working sessions, etc ... and publishes a review, under the title:" International Journal of Hydrogen Energy From which we extract in its original version a very explicit diagram (Fig. 23).

Fig. 23. -Abundant Clean Energy for Humanity (IAHE Document) USA.

(1) 248266 PO Box, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 USA. 296

(I) Reference: Hydrogen of solar origin by JL Perrier, communication made at the XVth

http://hydrogene.onebus.fr/jlperrier.php

[Christophe]

It's not thermolysis?

d) Pyrocatalysis of water: this is the most direct method of decomposition of water at medium temperature.

(4) - By gasification of coal

This process may not be based in the very long term following the exhaustion of coal, but it is capable of producing hydrogen and methanol (CH3OH) whose calorific value is 5 340 Kcal per kg.

(5) - By direct cracking of water (2 500 ° C thermolysis)

A solar reactor is capable of directly producing hydrogen, but the holding of the materials at such a temperature and the hydrogen-oxygen separation pose problems.

(6) - By thermochemical decomposition

More than 2 000 cycles have been identified; we have already mentioned the one that used iron oxide as a catalyst.

Active research is carried out in the center of Euratom in Ispra (Italy)

Mrs. Hardy, Messrs De Beni, and Marchetti managed to break down the water at 750 ° C by the following cycle:

Ca Br2 + 2 H20 - Ca (OH) 2 + 2 HBr at 730 ° C Hg + 2 HBr - Hg Br2 + H2 / at 250 ° C Hg Br2 + Ca (OH) - Ca Br2 + HgO + H20 at 200 ° C HgO - Hg + 1 / 2 02 /

(55% yield)

Likewise at the University of Aachen, at the nuclear center of Julisch in Germany, or at Gaz de France with the potassium cycle:

K2 02 + H20 - 2 KOH + 1 / 2 02 / at 150 ° C 2 KOH + 2 K - 2 K20 + H2 / at 700 ° C 2 K20 - K202 + 2 K at 1000 ° C

In the United States: General Electric, Atomics International, Gulf General Atomics, Institute of Gas Technology and Allison Division of General Motors Company with the formula:

Cl2 + H20 - 2HC1 + 1 / 2 02 to 700 - 800 ° C 2 HC1 + 2 VC12 - 2 VC13 + H2 to 100 ° C

4 VCb - 2 VC12 + 2 VC1 "at 700 ° C

2VCi "- 2VC13 + Cl2 to 100 ° C

Nowadays, we obtain even better than these three formulas by associating electrolysis with thermochemistry. This is yet another aspect which shows that a solar station must be polyvalent and a true "solar electrochemical" complex.

Mr. A. Vialaron, director of the "PIRDES" program, at CNRS in Toulouse, considers that the hybrid cycles (thermo and electrochemical) of decomposition of water are of interest and tells us that Westinghouse (USA) and EU-RATOM (Europe ) are working on a cycle of decomposition of water by electrolysis, associated with an oxidation-reduction cycle.

In most of these processes lies the intention to manufacture hydrogen from the heat of a nuclear reactor without going through electricity. A project by GDF and CEA concerns the production of 48 tons of hydrogen per hour thanks to a nuclear power plant of 3 000 MW, coupled to a potassium cycle. But there is a serious problem with the handling of materials and the safety ...

On the other hand, a solar reactor can work at 1 000 ° C, without being dependent on the many exchangers necessary to ensure safety if the thermal source is nuclear, especially since it is used toxic, corrosive or explosive products such as the potassium.

One of the goals of the Atlanta Solar Station (USA) is to experiment with methods of decomposing water into hydrogen and oxygen.

On the other hand, in thermochemical reactions, the bodies must be recycled or used in other applications.

QED !! no?

And this book has more than 30 years !! The search has had to evolve since !!

[chatelot16]

(5) - By direct cracking of water (2 500 ° C thermolysis)

A solar reactor is capable of directly producing hydrogen, but the holding of the materials at such a temperature and the hydrogen-oxygen separation pose problems.

sweet euphemism ... the high temperature hydrogen oxygen separation still has no solution ... it confirms that JL Perrier did not use it!

in the rest of the message we see thermochemical cycle is something else, it is no longer the thermolysis of water

I think electrolysis is the most accessible way to make hydrogen

[Christophe]

Without doubt and in this case as well to pass by PV: the price of the PV of today has nothing to do with that of the beginning of the years 80 when Perrier wrote his book ...

But the solar concentration is still more class

[chatelot16]

we ended up agreeing! why believe that I contradict you?

Photovoltaics and electrolysis go well together: they produce instantly at the slightest ray of sunshine even if it only lasts a few seconds! ... the thermal process works only when the sun shines long enough to put everything in temperature

this is what makes say that the production of solar electricity is good only in regions with very strong sunshine

why put hydrogen in cars ... there is a large amount of hydrogen currently used for welding or other industrial uses whose selling price is higher than the road fuel: we must therefore organize the production of Hydrogen by electrolysis to absorb the exedent of the network: it will be more profitable to do it at the collective level to avoid the danger of handling hydrogen anywhere

the production of hydrogen by electrolysis is part of the means of regulating the network that are technically possible without inventing anything

so we can install photovoltaic without waiting for new electricity storage means

the technical means already exist, we do not use them yet because the photovoltaic production is too weak ... we will use them when it will be necessary

[izentrop]

What for hydrogen? To date, there is no truly cost effective solution for reuse.

[chatelot16]

http://www.societechimiquedefrance.fr/e ... cadhyd.htm

http://www.societechimiquedefrance.fr/extras/Donnees/mine/hyd/cadhyd.htm

Hydrogen production in France is just 922 000 tons per year! and mostly produced by fossil fuel fossil conversion, and generally sold at a price much higher than the price of energy: so go buy a bottle of hydrogen in liquid air you see the price

so making hydrogen is a good way to use solar electricity in rab, not to use it in a car that does not exist but to sell it to the current user

when there will be much more photovoltaic it will be simple that the large industrial hydrogen producer build large electrolyseur intermittent operation to take advantage of electricity at low prices ... it will be done only when EDF will set up variable rate in real time

should we work on a way to store hydrogen at the individual scale? ... I think we are too far from profitability to hope to build salable equipment

is it useful to build very small equipment, reduced model style, to operate a lawn mower or a generator ... I have ideas for the compressor ... it would be reversible: consome of the mechanical energy for compress and provide mechanical energy like a compressed air engine when using hydrogen

this compressor will be used also for methane: which may have more practical application than hydrogen, since there are already a good number of methanizer so a number of customers who would be interested to operate their tractor methane

[chatelot16]

PRODUCTIONS of hydrogen: in 2014. World: 60 million t (666 billion m3), United States (11 million t), European Union (2006): 8,7 million t, France (2008): 922 000 t.

that's what I wanted to put in quotation in the preceding message ... pity that one can not more edit the old messages to correct the errors ...

[Christophe]

What for hydrogen? To date, there is no truly cost effective solution for reuse.

The only "profitable" use of H2 is space